Translation is the meaning-text-source text communication using equivalent target-language text. English draws different terminology (not all languages) between translating (written text) and interpreting (oral communication or sign language between different language users); under this distinction, the translation can begin only after the appearance of writing in the language community.
An interpreter is always at risk of accidentally introducing the words of the source, grammar, or syntax language into the rendering of the target language. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" sometimes import useful source-language words and loan words that have enriched the target language. Translators, including early translators of the sacred texts, have helped shape the languages ​​they have translated.
Due to the lengthening of the translation process, since 1940 efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translations or mechanically assist human translators. More recently, the rise of the Internet has pushed the translation service market worldwide and has facilitated "language localization".
Video Translation
Etimologi
The English word "translation" comes from the Latin translatio , derived from trans , "in" ferre carry "( -latio in turn comes from latus , past participle of ferre ). Thus translatio is "a carry across" or "a bring across": in this case, text from one language to another.
Germanic and some Slavic languages ​​have mastered their words for the concept of "translation" at translatio .
The Romance languages ​​and other Slavic languages ​​have got their words for the concept of "translation" of the alternative Latin word, traductio , itself comes from traducere (> to lead "or" to bring ", from trans ," in " ducere ," to lead "or" to bring ").
Ancient Greek term for "translation", ?????????? ( metafrasis , "speaking on"), has provided English with "metaphrase" (translation "literally" or "verbatim",) in contrast to "paraphrase" (" words in other words ", from ?????????? , paraphrasis ). "Metaphrase" fits, in one of the newer terminology, for "formal equality"; and "paraphrase", for "dynamic equality".
In fact, the concept of metaphase - from "word-for-word translation" - is an imperfect concept, since words given in a particular language often carry more than one meaning; and because similarly given meanings can often be represented in a particular language by more than one word. However, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as an ideal concept that marks the extreme in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.
Maps Translation
Theory
Western Theory
Discussion of the theory and practice of translation back in antiquity and demonstrating extraordinary continuity. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase . This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden (1631-1700), which describes the translation as a wise mix of these two revelatory modes when choosing, in target language, "opponent," or equivalent, for expressions used in the source language :
When [word] appears... literally graceful, it is a wound to the writer that they must be changed. But because... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbaric, sometimes unreasonable, in other, it would be unreasonable to limit the translator to the narrow compass of the writer's words: 'enough if he selects some expression that not weaken the senses.
Dryden warns, however, against the "imitation" license, that is, the customized translation: "When a painter copies from life... he has no right to change features and straightness..."
The general formulation of the central concept of translation - equivalence - is the same as anything that has been suggested since Cicero and Horace, who, in the 1st century BC, are well-known and literally warned not to translate "word for word" verbum pro verbo ).
Despite the occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has barely changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphor of the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical, and 18th-century Romans), the translators generally showed a flexible flexibility in finding equations - "literal" if possible, paraphrastic where necessary - for the original meaning and other important "values" (eg, style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in film, with articulation of speech movements) as determined from the context.
In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original original order, and hence the word sequence - if necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure, for example, by diverting from active to passive voice, or vice versa . Grammatical differences between "fixed word" languages ​​(eg English, French, German) and "free-word" (eg, Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have no obstacles in this regard. Specific syntax (sentence structure) language characteristics of the source text is adapted to the syntax requirements of the target language.
When the target language has no terms found in the source language, the translator has borrowed those terms, thus enriching the target language. Many thanks for the exchange of sweet words and loan words between languages, and for their import from other languages, there are some concepts that "can not be translated" among modern European languages. The bigger problem, however, is to translate terms relating to cultural concepts that have no equivalent in the target language. For full understanding, such situations require the provision of gloss.
In general, the greater the existing contacts and exchanges between the two languages, or between the languages ​​and the third, the greater the metaphrase ratios against paraphrases that can be used to translate between them. However, due to the shift of the ecological niche of words, general etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to the current meaning in one or another language. For example, the actual English should not be confused with Latin cognate actuel "present", "current"), Polish actual ("present", "current," " topical "," timely "," feasible "), Swedish aktuell (" topical "," currently important "), Russian language Russian language span lang =" ru "title =" text "> ?? ???????? ("urgent", "topical") or Dutch actueel ("current").
The role of the translator as a bridge to "carry across" intercultural values ​​has been spoken at least since Terence, the 2nd century BC adapter of the Greek comedy. The role of the translator is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical, and also has been compared to an artist. The main land seems to be a concept of parallel creation that is found in critics like Cicero. Dryden observes that "Translation is the type of image after life..." The comparison of translators with a musician or actor at least back to Samuel Johnson's words about Alexander Pope playing Homer on flageolet, while Homer himself used bassoon.
If translation becomes art, it is not easy. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if the translation is true, the translator must know both languages, and the knowledge he must translate; and found that few translators did, he wanted to remove translations and translators altogether.
The German translator of the Bible, Martin Luther (1483-1546), is credited with being the first European to put the translation translated satisfactorily into his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "has become an axiom" which is only translated into his own language.
Creating a claim on a translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can be a guide that is fully suited in translating. Scottish historian Alexander Tytler, in his essay on Essays on the Principles of Translation (1790), stresses that diligent reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than the dictionary. The same thing, but also including listening to the language speaking , was previously, in 1783, was made by poet and Polish grammar Onufry Andrzej Kopczy? Skiing.
The special role of translators in the community is described in an essay of 1803 by "La Fontaine Poland", Polish Catholic Primate from Poland, poet, encyclopedia, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from France and Greece Ignacy Krasicki:
[T] ranslation... is actually an art that can be estimated and very difficult, and therefore not labor and part of the general mind; [it] should be practiced by those whom they themselves can become actors, as they see greater use in translating the work of others than in their own work, and holds higher than the glory of their own service which they give to their country.
Other Traditions
Because of Western colonialism and cultural dominance in the last centuries, the Western tradition of translation has replaced many other traditions. The Western tradition takes advantage of ancient and medieval traditions, and on newer European innovations.
Although initial approaches to translation are rarely used today, they remain important when dealing with their products, such as when historians look at ancient or medieval records to collect events occurring in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, although heavily influenced by Western tradition and practiced by translators taught in Western-style education systems, Chinese and related traditions maintain some theories and philosophies unique to Chinese tradition.
Near East
Traditionally translating the material between ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Assyria (Syriac), Anatolia, and Israel (Hebrew) returns several millennia. There are translations from the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BC) into Southeast Asian languages ​​in the second millennium BC.
An initial example of bilingual documents is the 1274 BC Agreement of Kades between the ancient Egyptian kingdom and Hittie.
Asia
There is a separate translation tradition in South, Southeast, and East Asia (especially texts from Indian and Chinese civilizations), which relate mainly to religious texts, especially Buddhists, and to Chinese imperial government. The classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptations, rather than closer translations more commonly found in Europe; and Chinese translation theories identify various criteria and limits in translation.
In the East Asian sphere the influence of Chinese culture, more important than the translation per se has been used and read Chinese texts, which also have a major influence on Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese, with large loans. Chinese vocabulary and writing system. Notable Japanese kanbun, a system for polishing Chinese texts for Japanese speakers.
Although the Indian states of Southeast Asia often translate Sanskrit materials into local languages, educated elite and clerks more often use Sanskrit as their main language of culture and government.
Some special aspects of translation from Chinese are illustrated in Perry Link's discussion of the translation of Tang Dynasty poet Wang Wei (699-759 CE).
Some of the classical Chinese poetry art [writing Links] should be set aside as untranslatable. The internal structure of Chinese characters has its own beauty, and the calligraphy in which classical poetry is written is another important dimension but can not be translated. Because Chinese characters do not have varying lengths, and because there are exactly five characters per line in poetry like [discussed by Eliot Weinberger in 19 Ways of Seeing to Wang Wei (with More Ways) can not be translated is that the written result, hanging on the wall, presents a rectangle. Translators into long varied languages ​​can reproduce such effects only at the risk of fatal clumsiness.
Another unpredictable thing is how to imitate the 1-2, 1-2-3 rhythms in which the five syllable lines in classical Chinese poetry are usually read. Chinese characters are spoken in a syllable, so producing such rhythms in Chinese is not difficult and the results are not intrusive; but any imitation in the Western language is almost certainly rigid and disturbing. Even less can be translated is the pattern of setting the tone in classical Chinese poetry. Each syllable (character) belongs to one of two categories determined by the tone contours being read; in classical Chinese poetry, the pattern of substitution of the two categories shows parallelism and reflection.
Once the untranslated writings are set aside, the problems for a translator, especially Chinese poetry, are two: What do the translators think poetic sentences say? And once he thinks he understands it, how can he make it a target language? Most difficulties, according to Link, appear to address the second problem, "where the impossibility of a perfect answer raises an endless debate." Almost always at the center is a letter-enemies dilemma. In the extreme literalist, attempts were made to dissect every possible detail about the language of original Chinese poetry. "However, the dissection," writes Link, "usually in the art of poetry is roughly what an anatomist's scalpel does to the life of a frog."
The Chinese character, in avoiding grammatical specificity, offers advantages to the poet (and, simultaneously, the challenges of the poet translator) concerned primarily with the absence of subjects, numbers, and strains.
This is the norm in classical Chinese poetry, and common even in modern Chinese prose, to eliminate subjects; readers or listeners enter the subject. However, the Western languages ​​ask with the grammatical rules that the subject is always stated. Most of the translators cited in Eliot Weinberger's 19 Ways of Looking on Wang Wei gave the subject. Weinberger points out, however, that when "I" as the subject is inserted, "controlling the individual minds of the poet" enters and destroys the effects of the Chinese line. Without a subject, he writes, "experience becomes universal and direct to the reader." Another approach to impartiality is to use the passive voice of the target language; but this again greatly obscures the experience.
Nouns do not have numbers in Chinese. "If," writes Link, "you want to speak in Chinese about a rose, you may, but then you use" word size "to say" one rosen flower. "
Chinese verbs are not too tense: there are several ways to determine when something happens or will happen, but a tense verb is not one of them. For poets, this creates a great advantage of ambiguity. According to Link, Weinberger's view of impartiality - that it produces a "both universal and direct" effect - applies to timelessness as well.
Link proposes a kind of uncertainty principle that may apply not only to translations from Chinese, but to all translations:
The dilemma of translation does not have a definite correct answer (although there can be a mistake that is clearly wrong if one misreads the original involved). Any translation (except machine translation, different case) must pass through the mind of an interpreter, and it must contain its own savings, memories, and values.
Weinberger [...] pushed this insight further when he wrote that "every recitation of every poem, regardless of language, is an act of translation: translation into the intellectual and emotional life of the reader." Then he goes further: because the reader's mental life shifts with time, there is a sense in which "the same poem can not be read twice."
Islamic World
Translation of material into Arabic developed after the creation of Arabic writing in the 5th century, and became very important with the emergence of Islam and the Islamic empire. The Arabic translation initially focused primarily on politics, translating Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indian diplomatic material into Arabic. It then focuses on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scientific studies at major Islamic learning centers, such as Al-Karaouine (Fes, Morocco), Al-Azhar (Cairo, Egypt ). ), and Al-Nizamiyya from Baghdad. In terms of theory, Arabic translations are of great interest to the earlier Near Eastern tradition and to more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions.
The efforts and techniques of Arabic translation are important to the Western tradition of translation because of the centuries of close contact and exchange. Especially after the Renaissance, the Europeans began studying more intensive Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as Arabic and oriental scholarship and philosophical work. Arabic and, to a lesser extent, Persia became an important source of material and perhaps a technique for revitalizing Western tradition, which in time would take over the Islamic and oriental traditions.
In the 19th century, after the Middle Eastern Islamic scholars and copyists
have admitted defeat in their centuries battle to withstand the destructive effects of the printing press, [an] explosion in publishing... took place. Along with the expansion of secular education, printing turned a highly illiterate society into a literate section.
In the past, sheikhs and government have monopolized over knowledge. Now the growing elite benefits from the flow of information about anything that interests them. Between 1880 and 1908... more than six hundred newspapers and magazines were established in Egypt alone.
The most prominent of them is the al-Muqtataf ... [It] is a popular expression of the translation movement that had begun at the beginning of this century with the military and medical manuals and the spotlight of the canon of Enlightenment. (Montesquieu Considerations on Rome and FÃÆ' Â © nelon's Telemachus have become favorites.)
A translator who contributed greatly to the progress of the Islamic Enlightenment was the Egyptian cleric Rifaa al-Tahtawi (1801-73), who had spent five years in Paris in the late 1820s, teaching religion to Muslim students. After returning to Cairo with the encouragement of Muhammad Ali (1769-1849), the Ottoman king of Egypt, al-Tahtawi became the head of a new language school and embarked on an intellectual revolution by initiating a program to translate about two thousand Europeans and Turkish Volumes, ancient texts on geography and geometry to the biography of Voltaire Peter the Great, along with Marseillaise and the whole Code Napolà © on . This is the largest and most significant importation of foreign thought into the Arabic since the Abbasid period (750-1258).
In France, al-Tahtawi has been struck by the French way... constantly renewing itself to fit the modern way of life. But Arabic has its own reinvention source. Arabic-speaking root systems with other Semitic languages ​​such as Hebrew are able to expand the meaning of words using structured consonant variations: the word for airplane, for example, has the same root as the word for birds.
The movement to translate English and European texts altered the Arabic and Ottoman Turkish languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and candor to be of value compared to previous conventions. Arabs and Turks educated in the new profession and the modernized civil service declare skepticism, writes Christopher de Bellaigue, "with freedom that is rarely seen today.... No longer is the legitimate knowledge prescribed by texts in religious schools, interpreted for the most part with the debilitating literality that has included almost all intellectual production anywhere in the world. "One of the neologisms that, by the way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas through translation is its" darwiniya " >, or "Darwinism".
One of the most influential Muslim liberal thinkers of the time was Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905), the senior judicial authority of Egypt - the leader of the mufti - at the turn of the 20th century and the Darwinian admirer who in 1903 visited Herbert of Spencer Darwin exponent at his home in Brighton. Spencer's view of society as an organism with its own evolutionary law is parallel to Abduh's ideas.
After World War I, when Britain and France divided Middle Eastern countries, apart from Turkey, among them, in accordance with the Sykes-Picot agreement - which violated postwar war's postwar Arab war - came a direct reaction: the Muslim Brotherhood appeared in Egypt , House of Saud took over Hijaz, and a regime led by military officers ruling in Iran and Turkey. "[B] oth the liberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes de Bellaigue, "Islamism and militarism, received a great boost from Western imperial builders." As is often the case in countries experiencing social crises, the aspirations of translators and modern-day Muslim worlders, such as Muhammad Abduh, must largely surrender to the reverse.
Fidelity and transparency
Loyalty (or "loyalty") and transparency, dual ideals in translation, often (though not always) contradictory. A seventeenth-century French critic coined the term " les belles infidÃÆ'¨les " to indicate that translations, such as women, can be either loyal or beautiful, but not both.
Fidelity is the extent to which translations accurately translate the meaning of the source text, without distortion.
Transparency is the extent to which translation appears to the native speaker of the target language originally written in that language, and in accordance with its grammar, syntax and idiom. John Dryden (1631-1700) writes in his introduction to the translation anthology Sylvae :
Where I have taken some Expressions [original authors], and cut them shorter, perhaps based on this consideration, that what is beautiful in Greek or Latin, will not seem so shining in English; and where I have magnified it, I want that false Criticism will not always think that the thought is entirely mine, but whether it is secretly in the Poet, or perhaps quite deductive from it; or at least, if both considerations should fail, that mine belongs to his, and that if he lives, and an Englishman, they are as he might have written.
Translations that meet the criteria of allegiance (loyalty) are said to be "faithful"; translations that meet the criteria of transparency, "idiomatic". Depending on the translation given, the two qualities may not be mutually exclusive.
The criteria for assessing the allegiances of translation vary according to the subject, type and use of the text, literary quality, social or historical context, etc.
The criteria for assessing transparency of translation appear more clearly: indirect translation "sounds wrong"; and, in the extreme case of word-for-word translation generated by many machine translation systems, often produces patent nonsense.
However, in some contexts a translator may consciously seek to produce literal translations. Translators of literary, religious or historical texts often stick as close as possible to the source text, stretching the boundaries of the target language to produce insensitive texts. Translators can adopt expressions from the source language to give "local color".
The practice of Western translation today is dominated by the double concept of "loyalty" and "transparency". However, this is not always the case; there were periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century, when many translators went beyond the limits of translation precisely into the field of adaptation. .
The adapted translation preserves the currency in some non-Western traditions. The Indian epic, Ramayana , appears in many versions in various Indian languages, and the stories are different in each. A similar example can be found in medieval Christian literature, which adapts texts to local customs and customs.
Many non-transparent translation theories illustrate the concepts of German Romanticism, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his lecture "On Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguishes between translation methods that move "writers toward [the reader]", ie transparency, and which moves "reader to [writer]", that is, extreme loyalty to the strangeness of the source text. Schleiermacher liked the latter approach; he is motivated, however, not so much by the desire to embrace foreigners, such as the nationalist desire to oppose the dominance of French culture and to promote German literature.
In the last few decades, the leading proponents of the "non-transparent" translation have included French expert Antoine Berman, who identified twelve deformation trends inherent in most prose translations, and American theorist Lawrence Venuti, who has asked translators to apply " foreign "rather than tame the translation strategy.
Equality
The question of loyalty vs. transparency has also been formulated in terms of equality " formal equality" and " dynamic [or functional ]". The latter expression is associated with Eugene Nida's translator and was originally created to describe how to translate the Bible, but both approaches apply to any translation.
"Formal equality" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic equality" to "paraphrase".
"Dynamic equivalence" (or "functional equivalent") conveys the principal thoughts expressed in the source text - if necessary, at the expense of literature, original sememe and word order, vs. active source text. passive voice, etc.
By contrast, "formal equality" (sought through literal translation) attempts to translate the text literally, or "verbatim" (the latter expression itself is a word-by-word translation of the classical Latin verbum pro verbo ) - if necessary, at the expense of natural features into the target language.
However, there is no sharp boundary between functional and formal equality. Rather, they represent the spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in different contexts by the same translator, and at various points in the same text - sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation requires functional mixing and a wise equivalent.
Common traps in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve pseudo-equations like "fake friends" and fake acquaintances.
Translations
"Translation back" is a translation of the text that is translated back to the original text language, created without reference to the original text.
Comparison of translations back to the original text is sometimes used as an examination on the accuracy of the original translation, just as the accuracy of mathematical operations is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But the result of such translation operations, though useful as an approximate check, is not always accurately reliable. Translation back should be generally less accurate than re-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally not assertive.
In the context of machine translation, the translation is also called "back and forth translation".
When translations are produced from materials used in medical clinical trials, such as an informed consent form, a re-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.
Mark Twain jokingly notifies the often-unreliable proof of translation when he makes his own translation of the French translation of his short story, "The Jumping Frog Remembered in Calaveras County." He published the translation back in volume 1903 along with his English translations, French translations, and "Personal History of the Story of 'Frog Jumping'". The latter includes a synaptic adaptation of the story that Twain declared to have appeared, unrelated to Twain, in the Compositions of Greek Prose Professor Sidgwick (p.Ã, 116) entitled, "The Athenian and the Frog "; an adaptation has been taken to an ancient ancient Greek predecessor for the story of Twain "Jumping Frog".
When a historic document survives only in translation, the original has disappeared, researchers sometimes do the translation back in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761-1815), who wrote novels in fragments published anonymously and anonymously in 1804 and 1813-14. Part of the original French manuscript then disappeared; However, the missing fragment persisted in the Polish translation made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a full copy of French, is now lost. The full French version of Saragossa Manuscript has been produced, based on extant French fragments and in the retranslated French versions of the Polish version of Chojecki.
Similarly, when historians suspect that documents are actually translations of other languages, translations back to the original hypothetical language can provide supporting evidence by showing that characteristics such as idioms, word play, strange grammatical structures, etc., are actually derived from the original.
For example, the well-known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folklore is in High German but contains a play of words that only works when translated back to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these stories (or at least most of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by a metaphysical translator.
Similarly, the proponents of Aramaic virtues - from the view that the Christian New Testament or its source was originally written in Aramaic - sought to prove their case by showing that the difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New Testament make much better. common sense when re-translated into Aramaic: that, for example, some unintelligible references are Aramaic words that do not work in Greek.
Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which only survived in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.
John Dryden (1631-1700), the dominant English literary figure of his age, describes, in his use of translation, the influence of the translator on the evolution of language and literary style. Dryden is believed to be the first to argue that the English sentence should not end with a foregone word because the Latin sentence can not end with a preposition. Dryden created a prohibition against the "stranded preposition" in 1672 when he objected to the phrase 1611 Ben Jonson, "the body of which the souls were afraid of", although he gave no reason for his preference. Dryden often translated his writings into Latin, to check whether his writing is succinct and elegant, Latin is considered an elegant and long-lived comparable language; then he translated his writings back into English in accordance with the use of Latin grammar. Since Latin does not have a sentence that ends with a preposition, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming a controversial rule of no preposition that ends the sentence, which is then adopted by other authors.
Translator
The competent translator shows the following attributes:
- knowledge very good about language, written and oral, from where they translate (source language);
- the very good command of the language where they are translating (the target language);
- familiarity with translated text subjects;
- a deep understanding of the etymological and idiomatic correlations between the two languages, including the sociolinguistic lists where appropriate; and
- the meaning of when to metafrase ("translate literally") and when to paraphrase , to convince the true rather than the false the equivalent between source text and target-language.
Competent translators are not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not just a collection of words and rules of grammar and syntax to produce sentences, but also a very broad system of cultural connotations and references whose mastery, writes Mario Pei's linguistics, "is almost a lifelong job."
The complexity of the task of the translator can not be overstated; an author suggests that being a capable translator - having gained a good basic knowledge of language and culture - may require a minimum of ten years of experience. Seen from this point of view, it is a serious misunderstanding to assume that someone who has fluency in two languages ​​will, on the basis of fact itself, be consistently competent to translate between them.
The role of the translator in relation to the text has been compared to an artist, for example, a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like any other human activity, requires making choices, and the choice implies interpretation. The English novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings, Zdzis? Aw Najder, described as an "automatic translation" of Polish and French Conrad, suggests his niece and Polish translator Aniela ZagÃÆ'³rska:
[D] on't the difficulty to be too careful... I can tell you (in French) which I think "il vaut mieux interprÃÆ'Â © ter que traduire" ["better to interpret than to translate "].... Il s'agit donc de trouver les ÃÆ' Â © quivalents. Yes, ma chae¨re, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutÃÆ'Â't par votre tempÃÆ'Â © rament que par une conscience sÃÆ'Â © vÃÆ'¨re.... [Then, then, the question to find equivalent equivalents. And there, my dear, I beg you to be guided more by your temperament than with a strong conscience...]
Conrad advises other translators that the main requirement for a good translation is that it is "idiomatic". "For in that idiom it is the clarity of the language and the power of language and its beauty - the last of which I mean the power of the image producer of arranged words."
Conrad thinks C.K. The English translation of Scott Moncrieff on the work of Marcel Proust ÃÆ' â,¬ la recherche du temps shrub ( In Lost Time Search - or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past ) to be better than the original French.
The necessity of making choices, and therefore interpretation, in translating (and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from ambiguities that subjectively include the universe. Part of ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure of human language. Psychologist and neuroscientist Gary Marcus notes that "almost every sentence [produced by people] is unclear, often in many ways." Our brains are so good at understanding languages ​​we normally do not notice. " An example of language ambiguity is the "disambiguation pronouns" issue ("PDP"): the machine has no way of determining who or what pronouns are in a sentence - such as "he", "he" or "that" - - refers. Such disambiguation is also imperfect by humans.
Ambiguity is a concern for both translators and, as written by poet writer and critic William VIson, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed important, in poetry and diplomacy; it could be more problematic in ordinary prose.
An interpreter can make only parts of the original text, provided he indicates that this is what he did. But an interpreter should not take the censorship role and quietly erase or refine the parts just to please political or moral interests.
Translating has become a writing school for many writers, just as copying painting has taught many novice painters. A translator who can competently translate the author's thought into his own translator must surely be able to translate, in his own language, his own thought. Translating (such as analytic philosophy) forces precise analysis of language elements and their use. In 1946, the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Hospital. Elizabeth, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, an 18-year-old poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you've ever had." Merwin, the poets who listened to Pound's advice, wrote the translation as an "impossible, irreparable" art.
Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and early modern European translators of the Bible, in their course of work have shaped the languages ​​they have translated. They have acted as a bridge to convey intercultural knowledge; and along with the idea, they have imported from the source language, into their own language, the word borrowing and the calor of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.
Interpret
Interpret, or "interpretation," is the facilitation of verbal communication or sign language, either simultaneously or sequentially, between two, or between three or more speakers who do not speak, or sign, the same language.
The term "interpret," rather than "interpretation," is preferably used for this activity by an Anglophone translator, to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "interpretation."
Unlike English, many languages ​​do not use two separate words to indicate the activity of a written translator and direct communication (oral or sign language). Even English does not always make a difference, often using "translating" as a synonym for "interpreting."
Translators sometimes play an important role in history. The main example is La Malinche, also known as Malintzin , Malinalli and DoÃÆ' Â ± a Marina , a 16th century Nahua woman from the Gulf Coast Mexico. As a child he has been sold or given to the Maya slave trader from Xicalango, and thus has become bilingual. Subsequently, given along with other women to attack Spain, he became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as translator, advisor, intermediary and lover for Hernán CortÃÆ'Â © s.
Nearly three centuries later, in the United States, a comparable role as a translator was played for the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804-6 by Sacagawea. As a child, the woman Lemhi Shoshone has been kidnapped by the Hidatsa Indians and thus becomes bilingual. Sacagawea facilitates an expedition journey from the continent of North America to the Pacific Ocean.
Sworn translation
Sworn translations, also called "certified translations," aim at legal equality between two documents written in different languages. This is done by someone authorized to do so by local regulations. Some countries recognize the stated competence. Others need translators to become designated state officials. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, the translator should be accredited by a particular institute or translation association in order to carry out an authorized translation.
Phone
Many commercial services exist that will interpret spoken language over the phone. There's also at least one custom-made mobile device that does the same thing. This device connects users to a human interpreter who can translate between English and 180 other languages.
Internet
Web-based human translations are generally preferred by companies and individuals who want to get a more accurate translation. Given the inaccuracy of machine translation, human translation remains the most reliable and most accurate form of translation available. With the advent of translation crowdsourcing, translation memory techniques, and internet applications, translation agencies have been able to provide human translation services on demand for businesses, individuals, and companies.
Although not instantly like his engine counterparts like Google Translate and Yahoo! Babel Fish, a web-based human translation has gained popularity by providing a relatively quick and accurate translation for business communications, legal documents, medical records, and software localization. Web-based human translations also appeal to users of personal websites and bloggers.
Computer Help
Computer-aided translation (CAT), also called "computer-assisted translation," "machine-assisted human translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a translation form in which human translators create target texts with the help of a computer program. Machine supports human translator.
Computer-assisted translations may include standard dictionaries and grammar software. This term, however, usually refers to the various specialized programs available to translators, including translation memory programs, terminology-management, concordance, and alignment.
These tools accelerate and facilitate human translation, but they do not provide translation. It is a tool function that is widely known as machine translation.
Machine translation
Machine translation (MT) is a process in which a computer program analyzes the source text and, in principle, generates target text without human intervention. But in reality, machine translation usually involves human intervention, in the form of pre-editing and post-editing.
With precise terminology work, with preparation of source text for machine translation (pre-editing), and with machine translation rendering by human translators (post-editing), commercial machine translation tools can produce useful results, especially if an integrated machine translation system with a translation memory system or globalization management.
Machineless translation engines are publicly available through tools on the Internet such as Google Translate, Babel Fish, Babylon, and StarDict. This produces a rough translation which, in favorable circumstances, "gives the core" of the source text.
With the internet, translation software can help individuals who do not speak foreign languages ​​understand web pages published in other languages. One-page translation tools are limited utilities, as they offer only a limited potential understanding of the original author's intent and context; translated pages tend to be more funny and confusing than enlightening.
Interactive translations with pop-up windows are becoming more popular. These tools show one or more possible equivalents for each word or phrase. The human operator only needs to select the most likely equation because the mouse is sliding over foreign language text. Possible comparability can be grouped by pronunciation.
Also, companies like Ectaco produce pocket devices that provide machine translation.
Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in human language is embedded-context and that it takes a person to understand the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is true that even translations produced by pure humans are prone to error; Therefore, to ensure that machine-generated translations will be useful to humans and that high-quality translations can be achieved, such translations should be reviewed and edited by humans.
Claude Piron writes that machine translation, at best, automates the easier part of the translator's work; harder and more time-consuming parts usually involve doing extensive research to resolve ambiguity in the source text, which the grammatical and lexical urgency of the target language needs to be solved. Such research is a necessary preliminary for the necessary pre-editing to provide input for machine translation software, so that the output will be meaningless.
The weakness of pure machine translation, without the help of human skill, is the artificial intelligence itself.
Literary Translation
Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, drama, poetry, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. For example, well-known in the Canadian literature specifically as translators are such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson and Linda Gaboriau, and the Governor-General's Award annually presents the best English-to-French and French- English literary translation.
Other authors, among whom many have made names for themselves as literary translators, including Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-? Ele? Ski, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller and Haruki Murakami.
History
The first important translation of the West is the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC. Scattered Jews have forgotten their ancestral languages ​​and need a Greek version (translation) of their Scriptures.
Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western litigious world. Alfred the Great, the king of Wessex in England in the ninth century, was far ahead of his time in communicating vernacular English translations of Bede Ecclesiastical History and Boethius Consolation of Philosophy . Meanwhile, the Christian Church winced even the partial adaptation of St. Jerome Vulgate of c. 384 CE, Latin standard Bible .
In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to a large-scale translation effort lasting more than a thousand years. The Tangut Empire is very efficient in such efforts; exploit the printing of newly discovered blocks, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources illustrate the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, along with the wise men of different nationalities), the Tanguts only took decades to translate the volume that had taken centuries of China to render.
The Arabs made a great effort in translation. After conquering the Greek world, they made an Arabic version of his philosophical and scientific work. During the Middle Ages, translations of several Arabic versions were made into Latin, especially in CÃÆ'³rdoba in Spain. King Alfonso X el Sabio (Alphonse the Wise) of Castille in the 13th century promoted this effort by establishing the Toledo School of Translation (Schola Traductorum). There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts are translated into other tongues by Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars, who also debate the values ​​of their respective religions. Latin translation of Greek and original Arabic works of scholarship and science helped advance the European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.
A broad historical trend in the practice of Western translation can be illustrated in the example of the translation into English.
A good first translation into English was made in the 14th century by Geoffrey Chaucer, adapted from Italian Giovanni Boccaccio in his own
The first great English translation is the Wycliffe Bible (c.182), which illustrates the weakness of the less developed UK prose. Only at the end of the 15th century, the great English translation of the day began with Thomas Malory's
Meanwhile, in the Renaissance of Italy, a new period in the history of translation was opened in Florence with the arrival, in the palace of Cosimo de 'Medici, from the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to Turkey (1453). Plato's Latin translation was done by Marsilio Ficino. This Latin edition and Erasmus of the New Testament lead to a new attitude toward translation. For the first time, readers demanded the rigors of rendering, because philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle, and Jesus.
Non-scientific literature, however, continues to depend on adaptation . French PlÃÆ' Â © iade , the English Tudor poet, and Elizabeth's translator adapted the theme by Horace, Ovid, Petrarch and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on the models. The English poets and translators strive to provide a new public, created by the emergence of the middle class and the development of printing, with works like the original authors would write, if they had written in England that day.
The translation period of Elizabethan saw much progress beyond simply paraphrasing toward an ideal of equality of style, but even to the end of this period, which actually reached the middle of the seventeenth century, there was no concern for verbal accuracy.
In the second half of the 17th century, poet John Dryden attempted to make Virgil speak "in words like he would probably write if he lived and the Englishman". However, as great as Dryden's poetry, one reads Dryden, and does not experience the conclusions of the Roman poet. Similarly, Homer arguably suffered from Alexander Pope's attempts to reduce the "wild paradise" of Greek poets to order. Both work as decent epics of English , more than as access points to Latin or Greek.
Throughout the 18th century, the motto of the translators was the ease of reading. Whatever they do not understand in a text, or mind may make the reader bored, they are eliminated. They cheerfully assume that their own style of expression is the best, and that the text must be made to adapt it in translation. For scholarships, they are no more caring than their predecessors, and they do not shrink from making translations of translations in a third language, or from a language they hardly know, or - as in the case of Ossian James Macpherson's "translation" the actual text of the composition "translator" itself.
The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. With regard to accuracy, observe J.M. Cohen, the policy becomes "text, whole text, and nothing but text", except for the nasty parts and the addition of exaggerated explanatory notes. With regard to style, the Victorian ideal, achieved through metaphrase (literature) or extensive metaphrases of its reach, is to constantly remind the readers that they are reading a classic foreign . The exception is the remarkable translation of this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat from Omar Khayyam (1859), who achieved his Oriental taste largely by using Persian names and wise and truly interesting Biblical icons slightly material from the Persian Origin.
Before the 20th century, a new pattern was set up in 1871 by Benjamin Jowett, who translated Plato into a simple and straightforward language. However, Jowett's example was not followed, until the new century, when the accuracy of the style became the main criterion.
Modern translations
As language progresses, texts in earlier versions of the language - original texts, or old translations - may become difficult for modern readers to understand. Such texts can be translated into more modern languages, producing "modern translations" (eg, "modern English translations" or "modern translations").
Such modern rendering is applied either to the literature of classical languages ​​such as Latin or Greek, especially to the Bible (see "Modern English Bible translation"), or literature from the early stages of the same language, such as William Shakespeare (most of which the audience can understand modern, albeit with some difficulties) or with Central English Geoffrey Chaucer Canterbury Tales (which can be understood by most modern readers only through heavy dependence on footnotes).
Modern translations apply to any language with a long literary history. For example, in Japanese, the 11th century Tale of Genji is generally read in modern translations (see " Genji: modern readers").
Modern translations often involve literary scholarships and textual revisions, as there is often no single canonical text. This is especially important in the case of Scripture and Shakespeare, where modern science can produce substantive textual change.
Modern translations meet the opposition of some traditionalists. In English, some readers prefer the legendary King James Version of the Bible to modern translations, and Shakespeare in the original language c. 1600 to modern translation.
The opposite process involves translating modern literature into classical languages, for extensive reading purposes (for example, see "Latin modern literary listing").
Poetry
The view of the possibility of translating poetry satisfactorily shows a wide spectrum, depending on the degree of latitude to be given the interpreter in terms of the poetic formal features (rhythm, rhyme, paragraph form, etc.).
Douglas Hofstadter, in his 1997 book, Le Ton beau de Marot, argues that a good translation of poetry should convey as much as possible not only its literal meaning but also its form and structure (meter, rhyme scheme or alliteration, etc.). ).
Roman Jakobson, born in Russia and semiotikian, in 1959 had the inscription "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation", stating that "poetry by definition can not be translated".
Vladimir Nabokov, another Russian-born writer, takes a look similar to Jakobson. He considered poetry rhythmic, rhythmic, and much in principle untranslatable and therefore translated his English translation in 1964 from Alexander Pushkin Eugene Onegin in prose.
Hofstadter, at Le Ton beau de Marot, criticized Nabokov's attitude toward the translation of the verse. In 1999 Hofstadter published his own translation Eugene Onegin , in the form of sentences.
Gregory Hays, in the process of discussing the Roman translation adapted from ancient Greek literature, made an approved reference to several views on the translation of poetry expressed by David Bellos, a successful English-to-English translator. Hays writes:
Among the idÃÆ' Â © es reÃÆ'§ues [ideas received] stabbed by David Bellos is the old view that "poetry is what is lost in translation." The saying is often associated with Robert Frost, but as Bellos notes, attribution equally doubts him with the idea itself. Translation is a collection of words, and therefore can contain as much or as little poetry as any other collection. The Japanese even have a word ( ch? Yaku , roughly "hypertranslation") to designate a version that is intentionally fixed on the original.
Book title
The title-book translation can be either descriptive or symbolic. Descriptive book titles, for example, Antoine de Saint-Exupà ©  © ry Le Petit Prince (Little Prince), are meant to provide information, and can name the protagonist, and show the theme of the book. An example of the symbolic title of the book is Stieg Larsson's The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, whose original Swedish title is MÃÆ'¤n som hatar kvinnor (Men Who Hate Women). The titles of such symbolic books usually indicate a theme, problem, or working atmosphere.
When the translator works with a long book title, the translated title is often shorter and shows the book's theme.
Plays
Dramatic translations play many problems such as additional elements of actors, speech duration, literal translation, and the relationship between drama and acting. Successful play translators are able to create a language that allows actors and playwrights to work together effectively. Play translators must also consider several other aspects: final performance, theatrical and acting traditions, characteristic speech styles, modern theater discourse, and even auditory acoustics, that is, whether certain words will have the same effect on a new audience as they have in the original audience.
The audience in the Shakespeare period is more accustomed than modern audiences to actors who have longer stage times. Modern translators tend to simplify the structure of sentences from previous dramas, which include compound sentences with complicated hierarchies of subordinate clauses.
Chinese Literature
In translating Chinese literature, the translators struggle to find true fidelity in translating into the target language. In The Poem Behind the Poem , Barnstone argues that poetry "can not be made to be sung through mathematics that does not take into account the creativity of the translator".
The important work translated into English is Wen Xuan , an anthology representative of the main works of Chinese literature. Translating this work requires a high level of knowledge about the genres presented in the book, such as poetry, various types of prose including warnings, letters, proclamations, praise, decrees, and historical, philosophical and political revelations, threnodies and laments for the dead, and essays exam. Thus literary translators must be familiar with the writings, lives, and thoughts of a large number of the 130 authors, making
The general translation, similar to Kurt Gödel's concept of mathematics, requires, to varying degrees, more information than appears on translated text pages.
Sung Text
The text translations sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in other languages ​​- sometimes called "singing translations" - are closely related to the translation of poetry because most of the vocal music, at least in Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verses in regular patterns with poetry. (Since the end of the 19th century, the arrangement of prose music and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, although popular music tends to remain conservative in the retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) The basic example of translating poetry to sing is the church's praise , like a German choir translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.
Translation of the sung texts is generally much more restrictive than the translation of poetry, because in the first there is little or no freedom to choose between interpreted translations and distributed versions with paragraph structure. One can modify a
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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