In English, possessive words or phrases exist for nouns and pronouns, as well as some noun phrases. It can play the role of the determinator (also called the possessive adjective when it comes to the pronoun) or noun.
For historical reasons, the case is misleadingly called possessive (case). It was called genitive until the 18th century and actually expressed more than belonged. Much of the dispute about the use of possessive possessive forms and of quotes is due to the false belief that a term should not use quotes if it does not state ownership.
Dalam kata-kata dari Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage:
The argument is a case of self-delusion with its own terminology. After the 18th century grammarians began referring to genitive cases as possessive cases, grammarians and other commentators got it in their heads that the only use of the case was to show ownership....
The dictionary also cites a study that samples only 40% of possessive forms are used to indicate actual ownership.
Nouns, noun nouns, and some pronouns generally form possessive with the suffix - ' s (plus sign s , but in some cases simply by adding quotes to the already there is s ). This form is sometimes called Saxon genitive, reflecting the derivation of the suffix of Old English or Anglo-Saxon. The pronouns of people, however, have irregular possession, and most of them have different forms for possessive determinants and positional pronouns, such as mine and mine or yours and yours .
Possessives are one of the means by which genitive constructions are formed in modern English, the other being the primary use of the preposition of . It is sometimes claimed that possives represent a grammatical case, called a genitive or possessive case, although some linguists do not accept this view, of the suffix, the suffix, as the phrasal affix, an edge. affix, or klitika, not as case cover.
Video English possessive
Establishment of possessive construction
Noun and noun phrases
The possessive form of the English noun, or more commonly the noun phrase, is made by mixing the orthographically represented morphemes as' s (letter s preceded by quotes), and spoken in the same way as English plural ended (e) s : ie as when following the sibilant sound (/s/, /z/, /?/, /?/, /t?/ or /d?/), such as /s/ when following other soundless consonants (/p/, /t/, /k/, /f/ or /?/), and as /z/ otherwise. As an example:
- Mitch /m? t?/ has possessive courtesy of Mitch
- profit /l? k/ has the title luck's = "Representation in International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l? Ks/
- man /mÃÆ'Â|n/ has a single range belonging to man
/mÃÆ'Â|nz/ and possessive plural male
Notice the distinction of plural in the plural nouns: men vs. male , wife vs. wife , etc.
In the case of plural nouns ending in -s , the possessive is spelled by simply adding quotes and pronounced equally. In the case of single nouns ending in -s , possessiveness has traditionally been spelled by adding only quotes (though often spoken differently), but these are now generally diminished:
- ownership of cat is cat ', both words pronounced /kÃÆ' Â|ts/
- James ownership is currently most often spelled James's and spoken - , but ownership of Jesus is still often spelled according to the old tradition by adding only quotes ( Jesus ') and and usually pronounced the same (/' d? i: z? s/).
Single nouns ending in s can also form possessively regularly by adding ' s , as in Charles . The Chicago Manual of Style recommends this more modern style, stating that adding only quotes (eg Jesus ) is also true. Style Elements and Canadian Press Stylebook prefer the form s with the exception of Biblical and classical names ( Jesus doctrine , Augustus' keepers ) and common phrases that do not take additional syllables s (eg "for good"). For more on style guides for these and other issues related to ownership construction in English, see possessive quotes.
More generally, the morpheme ' s can be attached to the last word of the noun phrase, even if the noun noun ends the phrase. For example, the phrase Spanish king can form possessive Spanish king , and - in the informal style - the phrase the man we saw yesterday I can form the man we saw yesterday ; see Ã,§ Posessive status as a grammatical case below.
Scientific terminology, in particular the Latin name for stars, uses the Latin genitive form of the constellation name; thus, Alpha Centauri , where Centauri is the genitive of the constellation name Centaurus .
Pronouns
Unlike the other noun phrases that have only one possessive form, the English pronoun has two possessive forms: a possessive determinant (used to form a noun phrase such as " he successful") and pronouns property (used in place of nouns as in "I prefer hers ", and also in predictive expressions like "success is hers "). In most cases this is different from each other.
For example, the pronoun me has my possessive and my own possession ; you own your and your ; he has his for both; he owns he and his ; it has that for both (though rarely used as a possession pronoun); we own us and our ; they own them and them . The archaic you owns your and you . For full tables and more details, see the English pronouns.
Note that possessive that has no quotes, although sometimes written with one error or by people who are not trying to comply with this standard, in confusion with the common end of ownership - 's and the contraction is is used for it and it has . Possessive was originally formed with quotes in the 17th century, but this was dropped in the early 19th century, perhaps to make it more similar to the personal pronouns of others.
The word ask and the pronoun has the possessive that . In its relative use, which can also refer to non-living predecessors, but its interrogative use always refers to people.
The other pronouns that possess possessive (especially indefinite words) do so in the same way as nouns, with ' s , for example someone , a person > (and others ). Certain pronouns, such as this public demonstration , that , this , and are , have no possessive form.
Maps English possessive
The syntactic function of a possessive word or phrase
The English Owner plays two major roles in the syntax:
- the possessive determinant role (more popularly called possessive adjectives see Possessive Ã,§Ã, Terminology) standing in front of nouns, like in my home or two siblings woman of John i>;
- the role of the possessive pronoun (though they may not always be called it), standing independently in the noun place, as in mine is great ; they prefer John .
As a determinator
The words possessive nouns such as "John" can be used as determinators. When a form associated with a personal pronoun is used as a possessive determinant, the correct form should be used, as described above ( me rather than mine , etc.).
Possessive determinants are not used in combination with specific articles or determinators. For example, it is not right to say * my hat , * my hat or * this is my hat ; alternative is given in the last two cases by "double genitive" as described in the following section - my hat (also one of my caps ), my hat is . But a possessive determinator can be combined with certain quantifiers, as in my six hats (which is different in the sense of six from my hat ). See the English determinant for more details.
The possessive adjective can be intensified with the word itself , which can be an adjective or pronoun: mine (bed) , John's own bed (bed)
In some self-possessive expressions it has taken the nominal modifier role, as in cow's milk (used instead of cow's milk ). Then no longer function as a determinant; The adjective and the determinator can be placed before that, as in the warm cow's milk, where idiomatic and warm now refer to milk instead of for cow that is.
The possessive relationship can also be expressed periphrastically, by preceding the noun phrase with the preposition of of , although possives are usually more idiomatic in which the actual ownership relationship is involved. Some examples:
- child bag may also be expressed as child sac
- our cat mom may be expressed as the mother of our cat
- system failure may be expressed as system failure
The other alternative in the latter case may be system failure , using system as the adjun noun and not the possessive.
As pronoun
Possessives can also play the role of a noun or pronoun; ie they can stand alone as a noun phrase, without the qualification of nouns. In this role they can serve as subjects or verb objects, or as a supplement to the preposition. When a form associated with personal pronouns is used in this role, the correct form should be used, as described above ( mine rather than me , etc.).
Example:
- I will do my work, and you do your own . (here your is a possessive pronoun, meaning "you work", and stands as the object of the verb do )
- My car is old, Mary is new. (here Mary means "Mary's car" and stands as the subject of her clause)
- Your house is good, but I'd rather stay in mine . (this mine means "my home", and is a complement of the preposition in )
Genitive double
- your hardened ("Venus and Adonis", line 500)
- this extreme accuracy (Sterne, "Tristram Shandy", chapter 1.IV)
- my poor mother (Thackery, "Barry Lyndon", chapter I)
- Friends Nicholas Nickleby is My Mate , and often uses the title my friend
- the king image (that is, the king's image, different from the king image - the image in which the king is depicted)
Some authors consider it a questionable use, although it has a history of careful English. "In addition, in several multiple genetic sentences it offers the only way to express what is meant.no substitute for it in a sentence like That's the only friend I've ever met , since a sentence like > It's the only friend you've ever met and That's the only friend you've ever met is not grammatical. "" [T] his construction is limited to human reference: comparing < i> Friend's Gallery/not because of Gallery error. "Some objects by name, because" from "clause is not genitive. Alternative names are "post-genitive", "cumulative genitive", "pleonastic genitive", "double possessive" and "oblique genitive". The Oxford English Dictionary says that this usage is "Originally partitive, but subseq [uently become a]... simple possessive... or equivalent to the exact phrase...".
In predicative expression
When they are used as predictive expressions, as in this is mine and the pen is John , the meaning may be either the pronoun or from the adjective adjective; But their form ( mine , your , etc.) in this case is the same as that used in other sentences for possessive pronouns.
Use
The following sentence describes the use of who :
- As an interrogative ownership who : Whose pen is this? Who do you like? For whom do we do it?
- As the relative owner of who (usually only as a determinant, not a pronoun): There are men whose pens are broken off. She is the woman in the garden we found you.
- As a relative owner (again, usually only as a determinant): This is an idea whose time has come (preferably than ... of that the time has come ).
Semantics
Possessives, as well as the construction of their synonyms with of , express a variety of relationships that are not limited to ownership in the sense of ownership. Some discussions about such relationships can be found in Possession (linguistics) and in Possessive Ã, § Semantics. Some points relating specifically to English are discussed below.
Actions
When ownership is used with nouns verbs or other nouns expressing an action, the possessive may represent the offender of the action (the subject of the said verb) or the actor (the object of the verb). The same goes for the phrase from . When the possessive phrase and of are used with the same action noun, the first generally represents the subject and the last object. As an example: Fred is dancing (only possible meaning with this verb) Fred dancing (or dancing Fred )
Time period
The time period is sometimes put into possessive form, to express the duration or time associated with a modified noun:
- Hundred Years War
- paid one day
- two weeks notice
Paraphrasing with of is often not idiomatic or ambiguous in these cases.
Expressing for
Sometimes possessive states for whom something is meant, not to whom it belongs:
- women shoes
- children's literature
These cases will be paraphrased with for rather than from ( shoes for women ). Genitive Appositive
Sometimes genitive constructs are used to express nouns in apposition to the main ones, as in the the Isle of Man , drug abuse problems . This is sometimes done possessively (as in the fair city of Dublin), for a fair Dublin city, but this is rarely used.
History
The ' s clitic comes from Old English as an ampletic suffix marking a genitive case. In modern language, it can often be attached to the end of the entire phrase (as in "The King of Spain's wife"). As a result, it is usually viewed by linguists as klitika, an affix that can not be a word by itself but is grammatically independent of the word attached to it.
A similar form of klitika is in the German language of an English ancestor, and exists in some modern Germanic languages.
In Old English, -es is the end of the singular genitive of the strongest single and masculine and single genetic neutral noun denominations of the strong adjective. The ending -e is used for strong nouns with German -stem, which are mostly strong feminine nouns, and for singular single singular forms of strong adjectives.
In Middle English, the end of es is generalizable to the genitive of all strong declaration nouns. In the sixteenth century, the strong final declaration remnants were generalized to all nouns. The spelling of es persists, but in many words, the letter e no longer represents the sound. In those words, printers often imitate the French practice of replacing a quotation mark for the letter e . In subsequent use, ' s is used for all nouns where sound/s/is used for possessive forms, and when adding' s to words like love e is no longer removed. Confusingly, the form s is also used for multiple plural forms. This comes from a strong declaration as ending in Old English. In Central English, the spelling is changed to -es , reflecting changes in pronunciation, and extended to all plural cases, including genitive. The Conventions subsequently remove the apostrophes from subjective and objective case forms and add them after s in possessive case forms. See Apostrophe: Historical development
In Modern English Beginning from 1580 to 1620 it is sometimes spelled as "his" as the people's etymology, for example "St. James park"; see its genitive .
Verses 9: 6 show progress. In the Wycliffe Bible (1395), we find the word "mannus" ("Who is the mannus's blood, the blood script is described, because man is a virgin to God."). In the original King James Bible (1611) we have "man" ("Whoever shaves the blood of man, by man his blood will be shed, for in the image of God he made man.") In plural form, King James 1611 has mens , but older Wycliffe Bible uses men .
The rest of Genitive Old English is genitive adverbial, where ending s (without apostrophe) forms the adverb of time: current , close Sunday . There is a literary periphrastic form using from , as in from summer days . There are also forms in -ce , from number and place genetics: once, twice, three times ; from where, therefore, from there .
There is also a "genitive of measure": forms like "five-mile journey" and "ten-foot pole" using what is actually a remnant of the ancient British genitals which, ending/a/, have no end/s/> foot/feet vocal mutation of the nominative plural. In essence, the basic form is "five miles (travel OE genes m
Possessive status as grammatical case
Historically, the possessive morphemes represented by ' s are case markers, as noted in the previous section, and modern British ownership can also be analyzed as grammatical cases, called "possessive cases" or "genitive cases". However, it differs from the inflections of German nouns, in words like English horses eventually separated from the chief noun ( king ) and attached to the last word of the phrase. To illustrate this, possessiveness can be analyzed, for example as a cliche construction (a "posposition") or as the inflection of the last word of the phrase ("inflight edge").
Example,
- Oxford English , under the heading "Case", states "In his speech genitally marked by a single noun by inflection having the same pronunciation variant as for plural nouns in the general case. "
- Comprehensive English Grammar , under the heading "Forms of genetic inflection", also refers to "genitive inflections with regular and irregular plural", but later - especially with regard to " genitive group "- revising this to clarify that the end of -s is not a case that ends like in German or Latin but is" more accurately described as an enclosure posposition ".
- The Cambridge Grammar of English discusses possessive in more detail, taking into account group genetics (or phrasal) such as English King and someone else > and analyze the construction as the final word inflection of the phrase (as opposed to the word head). Discussions that support this inflexional analysis include:
- someone pronoun, where "no other analysis is possible",
- the fact that genitive 's can not stand alone, unlike ' m in I'm , which can be expanded to me
- The form that varies from the genitive suffix (/? z/,/z/,/s/) depends on the "phonological properties of the embedded base"
- the sensitivity of genitive formation to the internal morphological structure of nouns.
Another view is (1) that possessiveness can be considered to have an element of affix and a clitic element, which is considered an idealized category, and (2) that possessive form can be an affix or a clitic, but only one of two in the given example.
Note
External links
- Use the possessive in English Guide for English learners
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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