The thou ( ) is a single second person pronoun in English. Now it's mostly ancient, which has been replaced in almost all contexts by you . It is used in parts of Northern England and Scotland (/ÃÆ' Â ° u/), and also in rural areas of Newfoundland though as a recessive feature. You is a nominative form; the oblique/objective form is thee (works as both accusative and dative), the possessive is thy (adjective ) or you (adjectives before vowels or pronouns) and the reflection is yourself . When you are the grammatical subjects of finite verbs in the indicative mood, the verb form usually ends - (e) st (eg, "you go"; "do (e) st "), but in some cases only -t (eg," you ";" you "), although in some Old English dialects (especially in the North), this verb forms end in -s , then Quaker's habits use what looks like a third-person form of the verb with "you" as the subject (parallel to the use of "you").
Initially, you is just a single partner for the hour pronoun you , coming from ancient Indo-European roots. In Central English, you are sometimes abbreviated by placing a small "u" ​​on the letter: ÃÆ'¾ ?. Starting from the 1300s, you are used to express intimacy, intimacy or even disrespect, while other pronouns, you , oblique/objective forms you >, used for formal circumstances (see TV differences). In the seventeenth century, you were not used in standard languages, were often considered rude, but persisted, sometimes in altered form, in regional dialects of England and Scotland, as well as in the language of such religious groups as Friends of the Companions. The use of pronouns is still in poetry.
The earliest English translation of the Bible uses a familiar, second-person form, which reflects the general usage trends in other languages. The familiar and singular form used when speaking to God in French (in Protestantism both past and present, in Catholicism since post-Vatican II reform), Germany, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Ukraine, Russia, Yiddish, Turkey, Lithuania , and Scottish Gaelic (all of which retain the use of a single "informal" form of the second person in the modern language). In addition, the King James Version translator of the Bible seeks to maintain the distinction found in Hebrew between the singular and plural singular pronouns. Thus, they use "Thou" for the singular, and "you" for the plural.
In standard modern English, you continue to be used only in the context of formal religion, in literature that seeks to reproduce ancient languages ​​and in certain phrases such as "bless thee well". For this reason, many associate pronouns with sincerity or formality. Many dialects have compensated for the lack of singular/plural differences caused by the loss of you and you through the creation of new plural pronomina or pronominals, such as yinz , yous and you or colloquially you . Ye remains common in some parts of Ireland but these examples are only given regionally and are usually limited to ordinary speech.
Video Thou
Grammar
Because you have fainted from common usage, its traditional form is often confused by people who imitate ancient speech.
Declaration
The English pronouns have a standard slump according to the following table:
Conjugation
Verb shape is used after you generally ends at -est (pronounced or ) or < i> in the indicative mood in both current and past tenses. These forms are used for strong and weak verbs.
Typical examples of the standard shapes and past forms that follow. The e at the end is optional; initial English spelling has not been standardized. In the verse, the choice of whether to use e often depends on the meter's consideration.
- to know: you know , you know
- to drive: you dry , you blew it
- to make: you make , you're crazy
- to love: You pity , you love
The capital verb also has - (e) st added to its form:
- can: you can
- can: you can
- can: you can
- maybe: you may
- must: you must
- will: you will
- should be: you should
Some verbs have irregular shapes thou : You (or you < you wert ; you're originally )
In Proto-English, the second person's verb inflection is -es . This comes unchanged from the Indo-Europe and can be seen in much distant Indo-European: Russian ??????, znayesh , You know; Latin amas , You love him. (This is parallel to the history of the third person form, in Old English -eÃÆ'¾, Russian, ?????, znayet , he knows, Latin very he loveth.) the anomalies of the -es to modern English speakers, occurring separately at approximately the same time in German and Western Frisian are closely related, understood to be caused by the assimilation of the consonant pronoun, which often follows the verb. This is most easily observed in German: liebes du -> liebstu -> liebst du (love). These three languages ​​belong to the West German German-West German branch, in which West Frisian is the closest to English.
Comparison
In the Netherlands, the equivalent of "Thee", du , also becomes old-fashioned and is no longer used and replaced by Dutch equivalent to "you", gij (later jij or u ), as in English, with an informal plural taken by jullie ( cf. English you, you ).
In subjungtive and imperative moods, the suffix in - (e) st is dropped (though generally maintained in you wert , the second subjunctive person of the past from the verb "to" ). The subjunctive form is used when statements are questionable or contrary to facts; thus, they often occur after "if" and poetically "and".
- If you are Johan, I am telling you, true with good advice...;
- Be You my vision, my God my heart...
- I wish you had a dog, that I might love you something...
- And you brought Alexander and his lover before the Emperor, I will become Actaeon...
- O WERT you in a cauld blast,... I will protect you...
In modern regional English dialects using thou or some variants, such as in Yorkshire, often take the third person form of the verb -s . It comes from the merger of the Early Modern English English single second person ends -st and the third person ends single -s to -s (the last one variation south -ÃÆ'¾ ( -th )).
The indicative form now art (" ÃÆ'¾u eart ") returns to Saxon Western English (see OED sv be IV.18) and finally becomes standard , even in the south ( for example in Shakespeare and the Bible). For its effects also from the North, cf. Iceland ÃÆ'¾ÃÆ'º ert . For its origin, see OED be , the etymology part i.?/?. Preterite indicative of be is generally thou wast .
Maps Thou
Etymology
You are from Old English ÃÆ'¾? , and finally through the Grimm law of Proto -Indo-Europe * tu , with German vowels expected to extend with syllable words accented with open syllables. Thou are therefore cognate with Iceland and the Old Norse ÃÆ'¾ÃÆ'º , German and Continental Scandinavian > du , Latin and all major languages ​​Roman, Irish, Kurdish, Lithuanian and Latvian tu or tÃÆ'º , Greek ?? ( sy ), Slavic ??/ ty or ??/ ti , Armenian language ??? ( dow / du ), Hindi language ?? ( t? ), Bengali: ??? ( tui ), Persian ??? ? ( to ) and Sanskrit ????? ( tvam ). The cognitive form of the pronoun is present in almost every other Indo-European language. The second person's pronouns in Uralic like Finnish and Hungarian are similar.
History
Old and Middle English
In Old English, thou is governed by a simple rule: you call one person, and you more than one. Starting from 1300 you gradually being replaced by plural you as the address form for the superior person and then for the equivalent. For a long time, however, you remains the most common form of dealing with lower people.
The practice of singular and plural-type matching with informal and formal connotations is called T-V distinction and in English largely due to the influence of French. It begins with the practice of voicing other kings and aristocrats in the plural. Finally, it is generalized, as in French, to designate a social superior or a stranger with a plural pronoun, which is felt more polite. In French, tu is ultimately considered intimate or degrading (and to foreigners, potentially offensive), while the plural vous is reserved and formal.
General descent in Early Modern English
Suddenly in the seventeenth century, you began to decline in the standard language (that is, especially in and around London), often regarded as impolite or ambiguous in terms of modesty. It persisted, sometimes in altered form, especially in regional dialects of England and Scotland farther from London, as well as in the language of religious groups such as the Companions of the Sahaba. Reasons common to modern linguists about your seventh-century retrogression include the increasing identification of you with the "polite society" and the uncertainty of using you to subordinate to you to your boss (with you to a safer default) amid the emergence of a new middle class.
In the 18th century, Samuel Johnson, in A Grammar of English Lidue , wrote: "in ceremonial language... the second plural is used for a single second person", implying that you are still in regular daily use for a single second person, while you can be used for the same grammar, but only for formal contexts. However, Samuel Johnson himself was born and raised not in the south of England, but in the West Midlands (in particular, Lichfield, Staffordshire), where your usage continued until today, see below, so it is not surprising that he would consider it completely ordinary and describe it that way. By contrast, for most of the English speakers of southern England, you have fallen out of everyday use, even in familiar speeches, around 1650. You persist in a number of contexts religious, literary and regional, and pockets of continuous use of pronouns tend to weaken the obsolescence of TV differences.
One of the important consequences of the decline in the use of the lone second pronoun you , Mu , and you is the confusion of certain sociocultural elements from the Early Modern English texts , like many character interactions in the Shakespeare drama, most of which were written from 1589 to 1613. Although Shakespeare is far from consistent in his writings, his character mainly tends to use you (instead of you ) when talking to someone else who is a social subordinate, a close friend, or a hated person.
Usage
Use as a verb
Many Indo-European languages ​​contain verbs meaning "to speak with informal pronouns", such as the German duzen , Norwegian noun dus refers to the practice of using this familiar form of address instead of the usual commonly used De/Dem/Deres form, French tutoyer , Spanish tutear , Swedish two , Dutch < i> jijen en jouen , Russian people ?????? (tykat ') , Polish tyka? , Romanian tutui , Hungarian tegezni etc. Although rarely in English, its use did emerge, as in Sir Walter Raleigh's trial in 1603, when Sir Edward Coke, the prosecution for the Crown, was reportedly attempting to insult Raleigh by saying,
- I'm you, traitor!
- In standard English: I "you" you, you are a traitor!
here using Thou as a verb meaning to to call (someone) "you" or "you" . Although the practice is never rooted in Standard English, it occurs in dialect speech in the northern part of England. A previously common refrain in a Yorkshire dialect for admonishing abusive children of familiar forms is:
- Do not you think they're like you!
- In standard English: Do not (you) "you" them because you are "you"! ("tha" is a local dialect variant of "thou")
And similar in the Lancashire dialect:
- Do not you me, you; I am you for you!
- In standard English: Do not "you" me, son! I "you" for you!
See more Wiktionary page at thou as a verb.
Religious use
When William Tyndale translated the Bible into English at the beginning of the sixteenth century, he preserved the singular and plural differences he found in his original work in Hebrew and Greek. He uses you for singular and you for the plural regardless of the relative status of the speaker and the recipient. The use of Tyndale is the standard for periods and mirrors found in the earlier Wycliffe Bible and then the King James Bible. But since the use of you in the English non-dialect languages ​​began to decline in the 18th century, its significance remains familiar from the last wide use of the translation.
The 1662 General Prayer Book, which is still a form of official worship in the Church of England, also uses the word you to refer to a single second person.
The Quakers previously used thee as regular pronouns; stereotypes have them say you for both nominative and accusative cases. It began at the beginning of the Quaker movement by George Fox, who called it "ordinary talk," in an attempt to maintain the egalitarian familiarity associated with pronouns. Most Quakers have abandoned this usage. Initially, Quaker's movement was very strong in the northwest of England and particularly in the northern Midlands. The preservation of your in Quaker's speech may be related to this history. The modern quaker who chooses to use this "regular" way of speaking often uses the "you" form without corresponding changes in verb form, for example, is you or is you .
In the tradition of the Latter-day Saint prayer, the terms "thou" and "thou" are always and exclusively used to refer to God, as a sign of respect.
In many translations of the Quran, especially those set by the Ahmadiyya sect in Islam, the term thou and thou are used. One special example is The Holy Quran - Arabic Text and English translation, translated by Maulvi Sher Ali.
In the English translation of the holy book of BahÃÆ'¡'ÃÆ' Faith, the terms you and you are also used. Shoghi Effendi, the head of religion in the first half of the 20th century, adopted a style somewhat removed from the everyday discourse when translating texts from native Arabic or Persian to capture some of the poetic and metaphorical traits of the text in the original language and to convey the idea that the text is sacred.
The Revised Standard Version of the Bible, which first appeared in 1946, retains the pronoun you exclusively to call God, using you elsewhere. This is done to maintain the tone, as well as intimate and respectful, which will be familiar to those who know the King James Version and read the Psalms and similar texts in devotional use. The New American Standard Bible (1971) made the same decision, but the 1995 revision (New American Standard Bible, Updated edition) reversed it. Similarly, Revised English Bible 1989 erases all forms of you that have appeared in previous English Bible (1970). The New Revised Standard Version (1989) omits Thee fully and claims that it is incompatible and contrary to the original intent of using Thee in the Bible translation to adopt a special pronoun to overcome the God. When referring to God, "You" is often capitalized for clarity and respect. Although the Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic (Biblical languages) do not have a specific orthography (such as capitalization) to show that God is being referred, their grammar is more successful than English in making the noun/unambiguous agreement.
Literary use
Shakespeare
Like his contemporaries, William Shakespeare uses you both in an intimate, French-style way, and also to emphasize rank differences, but he does not mean consistent use of words, and friends and lovers sometimes- sometimes calling each other. others you or you as often as they call each other you , sometimes in a way that can be analyzed for meaning, but often seen randomly.
For example, in the following section of Henry IV , Shakespeare has used both forms of Falstaff with Henry. Initially using "you" in confusion when waking up he then turned to a cozy and intimate "thou".
- PRINCE: You're so fat by drinking old sacks, and opening your buttons after dinner, and sleeping on the bench after noon, that you forget to sue the truth that you are right -but know. What does your mother have to do with today's time?...
- FALSTAFF: Indeed, you come near me now, Hal... And, I'm prithee, sweet wag, when you were a king, because God saved Your Gift - Your Majesty, I have to say; because your grace does not exist -
While at Hamlet, Shakespeare used a second-person verbal warfare to express Hamlet's hostility towards his mother.
- QUEEN GERTRUDE: Hamlet, you're a lot of offended dad.
- HAMLET: Your mom, your dad is deeply offended.
Newer usage
Except where daily usage persists in some parts of England, the air of informal familiarity suggested by your use has disappeared; is often used for the opposite effect of serious ritual events, in the reading of the King James Bible, in Shakespeare and in formal literary compositions that deliberately seek to echo these older styles. Since becoming obsolete in most oral English dialects, it is still used by newer writers to discuss noble beings such as God, skylark, Achilles, and even The Mighty Thor. In The Empire Strikes Back , Darth Vader spoke to the Emperor with the words: "What is your command, my lord?" In Leonard Cohen's song "Bird on the Wire", he promises his lover that he will change, saying "I'll make everything for you." The Kaiser Chiefs song "I Predict a Riot" is mentioned below. In Diana Ross's song "Upside Down" (written by Chic's Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards) we hear the lyrics "Dear Sirs I'm telling you that I know you're cheating." The use of the pronoun recently shows something far from familiar intimacy or condescending behavior, while it can be seen as reflecting the mode of address used with Gods in the Bible as discussed above; or in the case of "Upside Down", may only allow interesting rhymes. The use of pronouns is also still in poetry to show extreme intimacy.
Most modern writers have no experience using you in everyday speeches; They are therefore vulnerable to the confusion of traditional verb forms. The most common mistake in modern artificial writing is the use of a third single-ended parent -di with you , for example you think . On the contrary - the use of the second person ends single -est for the third person - also happens ("So sayest Thor!" Ã, - spoken by Thor). This usage often appears in modern and pastiche parodies in an attempt to make the speech appear ancient or formal. The forms you and you are often diverted.
In the teen fiction argot nadsat, created for Anthony Burgess's novel A Clockwork Orange (and film adaptation), Alex and his wife regularly use "thou", which matches their semi-Edwardian outfit. For example, when fighting rival gangs, Alex addresses them thus (note mixing "you" and "you" for the second person):
- Good if not Billyboy billygoat spiced fat in poison! How are you, you, with a cheap oil bottle that smells rotten? Come and get one in yarel, if you have yarel, you will receive eunuch jelly!
Some translators make a T-V distinction in English with "thou" and "you", especially in places where you appear where you expect , or vice versa. This practice is largely unused. Ernest Hemingway, in his novel For Whom the Bell Tolls , uses the form "thou" and "you" to reflect the relationship between his Spanish-speaking character and to better represent the English in formal Spanish ( usted ) and familiar ( tÃÆ'º ) the second person pronoun still exists.
In reading parts with you and you , many modern readers emphasize verbal pronouns and suffixes. Traditionally, however, e at -est should not be suppressed, and you and you should have no more stress than you .
Current usage
you is now the second person's standard English pronoun and includes both singular and plural senses. However, in some dialects, "Thee" has persisted, and in some other dialects you are preserved for poetic and/or literary use. Furthermore, on the other hand the vacuum created by the loss of difference has led to the creation of new forms of second person plural, just like you are in South South America. The form varies throughout the English-speaking world and between literature and spoken language.
Persistence of a single second person
In traditional dialects, you are used in the districts of Cumberland, Westmorland, Durham, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire and some western parts of Nottinghamshire. Such dialects usually also retain different verb forms for a single second person, for example you coost (standard English: you can , ancient: you can i>) in northern Staffordshire. The word thee is used in the East Shropshire dialect which is now largely confined to the Dawley area of ​​Telford and is called the Dawley dialect. Across the Yorkshire countryside, the old distinction between nominative and objective is maintained. The possessive is often written as Mu in local dialectal writing, but is pronounced as without pressure tha , and the possessive form tha has been in modern. use almost exclusively following other English dialects to be your or local words you'n (from yours ):
The apparent discrepancy between the nominative, objective and genitive form of the pronoun on the one hand and the modern possessive form on the other may be a signal that the linguistic drift of the Yorkshire dialect causes tha to fall into disuse; However, the size of local pride in dialect may negate this.
Some other variants are specific to a particular area. In Sheffield, the pronunciation of the word is somewhere between the a/d/and the sound/th/, with the tongue at the base of the mouth; this led to the nickname "dee-dahs" for the people of Sheffield. In Lancashire and West Yorkshire, ta is used as shortening without your pressure, which can be found in the song "On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at". This variant is no longer used.
In the Northern Lancashire countryside between Lancaster and the North Yorkshire 'tha' border is preserved in everyday phrases like "What would tha like to thi tea?" (What you want for dinner), and " 'appen tha waint" ("you probably will not" Ã, - happen to be word dialect for maybe ) and "tha know" (you know). This usage in Lancashire is rare, except for the elderly and rural speakers.
The use of the word "thee" in the hit song "I Predict a Riot" by the band Leeds Kaiser Chiefs ("Watching people get liquor/not very beautiful, I tell you") caused some comments by people who did not realize that the word it is still used in the Yorkshire dialect.
The use of the phrase "tha know" has been widely used in various songs by Arctic Monkeys, a popular band from High Green, a suburb of Sheffield. Alex Turner, the band's lead singer, also often substituted the words "know" during the live versions of the songs. His selection to sing in his original Sheffield accent and the overall revival of their dialect has been greeted with positive feedback and critical acclaim.
Its usage remains somewhat in West Country dialects, though somewhat affected. Some Wurzels songs include "Drink Up Thy Zider" and "Sniff Up Thy Snuff".
Thoo has also been used in the Orcadian Scots dialect in the single informal place you . In Shetlandic, other forms of Insular Scots, du and de are used. The word "thou" has been reported in the northern North-Western dialect of Cromarty as commonly used in the first half of the 20th century and is now only used occasionally.
Use in theaters
The word you can sometimes be heard in a movie recorded in a particular English dialect. In Ken Loach's Kes , The Price of Coal
See also
Note
References
Further reading
External links
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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